The Pyramid Principle applied to Classification Algorithms

The Minto’s Pyramid Principle is aimed to better organize and remember ideas with a pyramidal, and hierarchical structure. If you have to answer: what are the different classification algorithms? You may think of, Random Forest, KNN, Naive Bayes, Logistic Regression, and so on. But what the relationships between, and how to give a structured answer?

Let’s apply the Minto’s Pyramid Principle.

#classification #data-science #supervised-learning #artificial-intelligence #machine-learning

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PySpark Cheat Sheet: Spark in Python

This PySpark cheat sheet with code samples covers the basics like initializing Spark in Python, loading data, sorting, and repartitioning.

Apache Spark is generally known as a fast, general and open-source engine for big data processing, with built-in modules for streaming, SQL, machine learning and graph processing. It allows you to speed analytic applications up to 100 times faster compared to technologies on the market today. You can interface Spark with Python through "PySpark". This is the Spark Python API exposes the Spark programming model to Python. 

Even though working with Spark will remind you in many ways of working with Pandas DataFrames, you'll also see that it can be tough getting familiar with all the functions that you can use to query, transform, inspect, ... your data. What's more, if you've never worked with any other programming language or if you're new to the field, it might be hard to distinguish between RDD operations.

Let's face it, map() and flatMap() are different enough, but it might still come as a challenge to decide which one you really need when you're faced with them in your analysis. Or what about other functions, like reduce() and reduceByKey()? 

Even though the documentation is very elaborate, it never hurts to have a cheat sheet by your side, especially when you're just getting into it.

This PySpark cheat sheet covers the basics, from initializing Spark and loading your data, to retrieving RDD information, sorting, filtering and sampling your data. But that's not all. You'll also see that topics such as repartitioning, iterating, merging, saving your data and stopping the SparkContext are included in the cheat sheet. 

Note that the examples in the document take small data sets to illustrate the effect of specific functions on your data. In real life data analysis, you'll be using Spark to analyze big data.

PySpark is the Spark Python API that exposes the Spark programming model to Python.

Initializing Spark 

SparkContext 

>>> from pyspark import SparkContext
>>> sc = SparkContext(master = 'local[2]')

Inspect SparkContext 

>>> sc.version #Retrieve SparkContext version
>>> sc.pythonVer #Retrieve Python version
>>> sc.master #Master URL to connect to
>>> str(sc.sparkHome) #Path where Spark is installed on worker nodes
>>> str(sc.sparkUser()) #Retrieve name of the Spark User running SparkContext
>>> sc.appName #Return application name
>>> sc.applicationld #Retrieve application ID
>>> sc.defaultParallelism #Return default level of parallelism
>>> sc.defaultMinPartitions #Default minimum number of partitions for RDDs

Configuration 

>>> from pyspark import SparkConf, SparkContext
>>> conf = (SparkConf()
     .setMaster("local")
     .setAppName("My app")
     . set   ("spark. executor.memory",   "lg"))
>>> sc = SparkContext(conf = conf)

Using the Shell 

In the PySpark shell, a special interpreter-aware SparkContext is already created in the variable called sc.

$ ./bin/spark-shell --master local[2]
$ ./bin/pyspark --master local[s] --py-files code.py

Set which master the context connects to with the --master argument, and add Python .zip..egg or.py files to the

runtime path by passing a comma-separated list to  --py-files.

Loading Data 

Parallelized Collections 

>>> rdd = sc.parallelize([('a',7),('a',2),('b',2)])
>>> rdd2 = sc.parallelize([('a',2),('d',1),('b',1)])
>>> rdd3 = sc.parallelize(range(100))
>>> rdd = sc.parallelize([("a",["x","y","z"]),
               ("b" ["p","r,"])])

External Data 

Read either one text file from HDFS, a local file system or any Hadoop-supported file system URI with textFile(), or read in a directory of text files with wholeTextFiles(). 

>>> textFile = sc.textFile("/my/directory/•.txt")
>>> textFile2 = sc.wholeTextFiles("/my/directory/")

Retrieving RDD Information 

Basic Information 

>>> rdd.getNumPartitions() #List the number of partitions
>>> rdd.count() #Count RDD instances 3
>>> rdd.countByKey() #Count RDD instances by key
defaultdict(<type 'int'>,{'a':2,'b':1})
>>> rdd.countByValue() #Count RDD instances by value
defaultdict(<type 'int'>,{('b',2):1,('a',2):1,('a',7):1})
>>> rdd.collectAsMap() #Return (key,value) pairs as a dictionary
   {'a': 2, 'b': 2}
>>> rdd3.sum() #Sum of RDD elements 4950
>>> sc.parallelize([]).isEmpty() #Check whether RDD is empty
True

Summary 

>>> rdd3.max() #Maximum value of RDD elements 
99
>>> rdd3.min() #Minimum value of RDD elements
0
>>> rdd3.mean() #Mean value of RDD elements 
49.5
>>> rdd3.stdev() #Standard deviation of RDD elements 
28.866070047722118
>>> rdd3.variance() #Compute variance of RDD elements 
833.25
>>> rdd3.histogram(3) #Compute histogram by bins
([0,33,66,99],[33,33,34])
>>> rdd3.stats() #Summary statistics (count, mean, stdev, max & min)

Applying Functions 

#Apply a function to each RFD element
>>> rdd.map(lambda x: x+(x[1],x[0])).collect()
[('a' ,7,7, 'a'),('a' ,2,2, 'a'), ('b' ,2,2, 'b')]
#Apply a function to each RDD element and flatten the result
>>> rdd5 = rdd.flatMap(lambda x: x+(x[1],x[0]))
>>> rdd5.collect()
['a',7 , 7 ,  'a' , 'a' , 2,  2,  'a', 'b', 2 , 2, 'b']
#Apply a flatMap function to each (key,value) pair of rdd4 without changing the keys
>>> rdds.flatMapValues(lambda x: x).collect()
[('a', 'x'), ('a', 'y'), ('a', 'z'),('b', 'p'),('b', 'r')]

Selecting Data

Getting

>>> rdd.collect() #Return a list with all RDD elements 
[('a', 7), ('a', 2), ('b', 2)]
>>> rdd.take(2) #Take first 2 RDD elements 
[('a', 7),  ('a', 2)]
>>> rdd.first() #Take first RDD element
('a', 7)
>>> rdd.top(2) #Take top 2 RDD elements 
[('b', 2), ('a', 7)]

Sampling

>>> rdd3.sample(False, 0.15, 81).collect() #Return sampled subset of rdd3
     [3,4,27,31,40,41,42,43,60,76,79,80,86,97]

Filtering

>>> rdd.filter(lambda x: "a" in x).collect() #Filter the RDD
[('a',7),('a',2)]
>>> rdd5.distinct().collect() #Return distinct RDD values
['a' ,2, 'b',7]
>>> rdd.keys().collect() #Return (key,value) RDD's keys
['a',  'a',  'b']

Iterating 

>>> def g (x): print(x)
>>> rdd.foreach(g) #Apply a function to all RDD elements
('a', 7)
('b', 2)
('a', 2)

Reshaping Data 

Reducing

>>> rdd.reduceByKey(lambda x,y : x+y).collect() #Merge the rdd values for each key
[('a',9),('b',2)]
>>> rdd.reduce(lambda a, b: a+ b) #Merge the rdd values
('a', 7, 'a' , 2 , 'b' , 2)

 

Grouping by

>>> rdd3.groupBy(lambda x: x % 2) #Return RDD of grouped values
          .mapValues(list)
          .collect()
>>> rdd.groupByKey() #Group rdd by key
          .mapValues(list)
          .collect() 
[('a',[7,2]),('b',[2])]

Aggregating

>> seqOp = (lambda x,y: (x[0]+y,x[1]+1))
>>> combOp = (lambda x,y:(x[0]+y[0],x[1]+y[1]))
#Aggregate RDD elements of each partition and then the results
>>> rdd3.aggregate((0,0),seqOp,combOp) 
(4950,100)
#Aggregate values of each RDD key
>>> rdd.aggregateByKey((0,0),seqop,combop).collect() 
     [('a',(9,2)), ('b',(2,1))]
#Aggregate the elements of each partition, and then the results
>>> rdd3.fold(0,add)
     4950
#Merge the values for each key
>>> rdd.foldByKey(0, add).collect()
[('a' ,9), ('b' ,2)]
#Create tuples of RDD elements by applying a function
>>> rdd3.keyBy(lambda x: x+x).collect()

Mathematical Operations 

>>>> rdd.subtract(rdd2).collect() #Return each rdd value not contained in rdd2
[('b' ,2), ('a' ,7)]
#Return each (key,value) pair of rdd2 with no matching key in rdd
>>> rdd2.subtractByKey(rdd).collect()
[('d', 1)1
>>>rdd.cartesian(rdd2).collect() #Return the Cartesian product of rdd and rdd2

Sort 

>>> rdd2.sortBy(lambda x: x[1]).collect() #Sort RDD by given function
[('d',1),('b',1),('a',2)]
>>> rdd2.sortByKey().collect() #Sort (key, value) ROD by key
[('a' ,2), ('b' ,1), ('d' ,1)]

Repartitioning 

>>> rdd.repartition(4) #New RDD with 4 partitions
>>> rdd.coalesce(1) #Decrease the number of partitions in the RDD to 1

Saving 

>>> rdd.saveAsTextFile("rdd.txt")
>>> rdd.saveAsHadoopFile("hdfs:// namenodehost/parent/child",
               'org.apache.hadoop.mapred.TextOutputFormat')

Stopping SparkContext 

>>> sc.stop()

Execution 

$ ./bin/spark-submit examples/src/main/python/pi.py

Have this Cheat Sheet at your fingertips

Original article source at https://www.datacamp.com

#pyspark #cheatsheet #spark #python

The Pyramid Principle applied to Classification Algorithms

The Minto’s Pyramid Principle is aimed to better organize and remember ideas with a pyramidal, and hierarchical structure. If you have to answer: what are the different classification algorithms? You may think of, Random Forest, KNN, Naive Bayes, Logistic Regression, and so on. But what the relationships between, and how to give a structured answer?

Let’s apply the Minto’s Pyramid Principle.

#classification #data-science #supervised-learning #artificial-intelligence #machine-learning

The Pyramid Principle applied to Classification Algorithms

The Minto’s Pyramid Principle is aimed to better organize and remember ideas with a pyramidal, and hierarchical structure. If you have to answer: what are the different classification algorithms? You may think of, Random Forest, KNN, Naive Bayes, Logistic Regression, and so on. But what the relationships between, and how to give a structured answer?

Let’s apply the Minto’s Pyramid Principle.

#classification #data-science #supervised-learning #artificial-intelligence #machine-learning

How to apply SOLID Software Design Principles to Spring Boot Application (Part 2)

OCP: Open-Closed Principle

(skip the first paragraph if you have already read other parts of this blog series)

This article is the second part of the blog series, dedicated to well-known software design principles, that evolved over time and were finally summarised by Robert C. Martin with initials of the corresponding principles. These principles guide us how to build well-designed software systems, giving best practices for arranging classes, functions, building blocks. We will look at each principle in depth and apply it to the Spring Boot Application. The idea is refactoring existing software based on these principles from architectural point of view.

The word S.O.L.I.D. stands for:

• SRP: Single Responsibility Principle
• OCP: Open-Closed Principle
• LSP: Liskov Substitution Principle
• ISP: Interface Segregation Principle
• DIP: Dependency Inversion Principle

This second part is about OCP. Before jumping to concrete example, let’s have some theory.

A Software artifact should be open for extension but closed for modification.

This simple description of the principle was firstly introduced by Bertrand Meyer. Software system that needs modification each time for any additional functionality is just a big mess. On the other hand, this kind of chaotic program is welcoming occasional bugs every time modification is made. Preferably, every new functionality should be maximum of new code and minimum of change in old code, in ideal world: zero changes in old code.

From architectural point of view, before structuring any software system every developer should think carefully which components should be free of any changelings, and organize dependency flow so that important components (plugins, packages, classes…) should not need changes when less important components are changed. So dependency flow of a software should be directed to components that you want to protect the most.

If component A should be protected from changes in component B, then component B should depend on component A, not otherwise.

Luckily, capabilities of Object Oriented Programming are able to handle these kind of problems. Polymorphism, by using super/child classes and Inversion of Control, by using interfaces(in java terms!) are two powerful technics that we can use to achieve Open-Closed Principle.

Polymorphism means “many forms”, and it occurs when we have many classes that are related to each other by inheritance.

Inversion of control (IoC) is inverting the flow of control as compared to traditional control flow.

#solid-principles #refactoring #open-closed-principle #spring-boot #software-design #how to apply solid software design principles to spring boot application

Logistic Regression: Discover the Powerful Classification Technique

Get to know one of the most widely used classification techniques
The process of differentiating categorical data using predictive techniques is called classification. On the basis of training data, consisting of observations whose category membership is known, the classifier (the algorithm that implements classification) should learn, on the basis of explanatory variables (features), to which category new observations belong.

#algorithms #classification #logistic-regression #machine-learning #data-science #algorithms