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A Pure PHP Implementation Of The MessagePack Serialization Format

msgpack.php

A pure PHP implementation of the MessagePack serialization format.

Features

• Fully compliant with the latest MessagePack specification
• Supports streaming unpacking
• Supports unsigned 64-bit integers handling
• Supports object serialization
• Fully tested
• Relatively fast

Installation

The recommended way to install the library is through Composer:

composer require rybakit/msgpack

Usage

Packing

To pack values you can either use an instance of a Packer:

$packer = new Packer();
$packed = $packer->pack($value);

or call a static method on the MessagePack class:

$packed = MessagePack::pack($value);

In the examples above, the method pack automatically packs a value depending on its type. However, not all PHP types can be uniquely translated to MessagePack types. For example, the MessagePack format defines map and array types, which are represented by a single array type in PHP. By default, the packer will pack a PHP array as a MessagePack array if it has sequential numeric keys, starting from 0 and as a MessagePack map otherwise:

$mpArr1 = $packer->pack([1, 2]);               // MP array [1, 2]
$mpArr2 = $packer->pack([0 => 1, 1 => 2]);     // MP array [1, 2]
$mpMap1 = $packer->pack([0 => 1, 2 => 3]);     // MP map {0: 1, 2: 3}
$mpMap2 = $packer->pack([1 => 2, 2 => 3]);     // MP map {1: 2, 2: 3}
$mpMap3 = $packer->pack(['a' => 1, 'b' => 2]); // MP map {a: 1, b: 2}

However, sometimes you need to pack a sequential array as a MessagePack map. To do this, use the packMap method:

$mpMap = $packer->packMap([1, 2]); // {0: 1, 1: 2}

Here is a list of type-specific packing methods:

$packer->packNil();           // MP nil
$packer->packBool(true);      // MP bool
$packer->packInt(42);         // MP int
$packer->packFloat(M_PI);     // MP float (32 or 64)
$packer->packFloat32(M_PI);   // MP float 32
$packer->packFloat64(M_PI);   // MP float 64
$packer->packStr('foo');      // MP str
$packer->packBin("\x80");     // MP bin
$packer->packArray([1, 2]);   // MP array
$packer->packMap(['a' => 1]); // MP map
$packer->packExt(1, "\xaa");  // MP ext

Check the "Custom types" section below on how to pack custom types.

Packing options

The Packer object supports a number of bitmask-based options for fine-tuning the packing process (defaults are in bold):

Name	Description
FORCE_STR	Forces PHP strings to be packed as MessagePack UTF-8 strings
FORCE_BIN	Forces PHP strings to be packed as MessagePack binary data
DETECT_STR_BIN	Detects MessagePack str/bin type automatically
FORCE_ARR	Forces PHP arrays to be packed as MessagePack arrays
FORCE_MAP	Forces PHP arrays to be packed as MessagePack maps
DETECT_ARR_MAP	Detects MessagePack array/map type automatically
FORCE_FLOAT32	Forces PHP floats to be packed as 32-bits MessagePack floats
FORCE_FLOAT64	Forces PHP floats to be packed as 64-bits MessagePack floats

The type detection mode (DETECT_STR_BIN/DETECT_ARR_MAP) adds some overhead which can be noticed when you pack large (16- and 32-bit) arrays or strings. However, if you know the value type in advance (for example, you only work with UTF-8 strings or/and associative arrays), you can eliminate this overhead by forcing the packer to use the appropriate type, which will save it from running the auto-detection routine. Another option is to explicitly specify the value type. The library provides 2 auxiliary classes for this, Map and Bin. Check the "Custom types" section below for details.

Examples:

// detect str/bin type and pack PHP 64-bit floats (doubles) to MP 32-bit floats
$packer = new Packer(PackOptions::DETECT_STR_BIN | PackOptions::FORCE_FLOAT32);

// these will throw MessagePack\Exception\InvalidOptionException
$packer = new Packer(PackOptions::FORCE_STR | PackOptions::FORCE_BIN);
$packer = new Packer(PackOptions::FORCE_FLOAT32 | PackOptions::FORCE_FLOAT64);

Unpacking

To unpack data you can either use an instance of a BufferUnpacker:

$unpacker = new BufferUnpacker();

$unpacker->reset($packed);
$value = $unpacker->unpack();

or call a static method on the MessagePack class:

$value = MessagePack::unpack($packed);

If the packed data is received in chunks (e.g. when reading from a stream), use the tryUnpack method, which attempts to unpack data and returns an array of unpacked messages (if any) instead of throwing an InsufficientDataException:

while ($chunk = ...) {
    $unpacker->append($chunk);
    if ($messages = $unpacker->tryUnpack()) {
        return $messages;
    }
}

If you want to unpack from a specific position in a buffer, use seek:

$unpacker->seek(42); // set position equal to 42 bytes
$unpacker->seek(-8); // set position to 8 bytes before the end of the buffer

To skip bytes from the current position, use skip:

$unpacker->skip(10); // set position to 10 bytes ahead of the current position

To get the number of remaining (unread) bytes in the buffer:

$unreadBytesCount = $unpacker->getRemainingCount();

To check whether the buffer has unread data:

$hasUnreadBytes = $unpacker->hasRemaining();

If needed, you can remove already read data from the buffer by calling:

$releasedBytesCount = $unpacker->release();

With the read method you can read raw (packed) data:

$packedData = $unpacker->read(2); // read 2 bytes

Besides the above methods BufferUnpacker provides type-specific unpacking methods, namely:

$unpacker->unpackNil();   // PHP null
$unpacker->unpackBool();  // PHP bool
$unpacker->unpackInt();   // PHP int
$unpacker->unpackFloat(); // PHP float
$unpacker->unpackStr();   // PHP UTF-8 string
$unpacker->unpackBin();   // PHP binary string
$unpacker->unpackArray(); // PHP sequential array
$unpacker->unpackMap();   // PHP associative array
$unpacker->unpackExt();   // PHP MessagePack\Type\Ext object

Unpacking options

The BufferUnpacker object supports a number of bitmask-based options for fine-tuning the unpacking process (defaults are in bold):

Name	Description
BIGINT_AS_STR	Converts overflowed integers to strings [1]
BIGINT_AS_GMP	Converts overflowed integers to GMP objects [2]
BIGINT_AS_DEC	Converts overflowed integers to Decimal\Decimal objects [3]

1. The binary MessagePack format has unsigned 64-bit as its largest integer data type, but PHP does not support such integers, which means that an overflow can occur during unpacking.

2. Make sure the GMP extension is enabled.

3. Make sure the Decimal extension is enabled.

Examples:

$packedUint64 = "\xcf"."\xff\xff\xff\xff"."\xff\xff\xff\xff";

$unpacker = new BufferUnpacker($packedUint64);
var_dump($unpacker->unpack()); // string(20) "18446744073709551615"

$unpacker = new BufferUnpacker($packedUint64, UnpackOptions::BIGINT_AS_GMP);
var_dump($unpacker->unpack()); // object(GMP) {...}

$unpacker = new BufferUnpacker($packedUint64, UnpackOptions::BIGINT_AS_DEC);
var_dump($unpacker->unpack()); // object(Decimal\Decimal) {...}

Custom types

In addition to the basic types, the library provides functionality to serialize and deserialize arbitrary types. This can be done in several ways, depending on your use case. Let's take a look at them.

Type objects

If you need to serialize an instance of one of your classes into one of the basic MessagePack types, the best way to do this is to implement the CanBePacked interface in the class. A good example of such a class is the Map type class that comes with the library. This type is useful when you want to explicitly specify that a given PHP array should be packed as a MessagePack map without triggering an automatic type detection routine:

$packer = new Packer();

$packedMap = $packer->pack(new Map([1, 2, 3]));
$packedArray = $packer->pack([1, 2, 3]);

More type examples can be found in the src/Type directory.

Type transformers

As with type objects, type transformers are only responsible for serializing values. They should be used when you need to serialize a value that does not implement the CanBePacked interface. Examples of such values could be instances of built-in or third-party classes that you don't own, or non-objects such as resources.

A transformer class must implement the CanPack interface. To use a transformer, it must first be registered in the packer. Here is an example of how to serialize PHP streams into the MessagePack bin format type using one of the supplied transformers, StreamTransformer:

$packer = new Packer(null, [new StreamTransformer()]);

$packedBin = $packer->pack(fopen('/path/to/file', 'r+'));

More type transformer examples can be found in the src/TypeTransformer directory.

Extensions

In contrast to the cases described above, extensions are intended to handle extension types and are responsible for both serialization and deserialization of values (types).

An extension class must implement the Extension interface. To use an extension, it must first be registered in the packer and the unpacker.

The MessagePack specification divides extension types into two groups: predefined and application-specific. Currently, there is only one predefined type in the specification, Timestamp.

Timestamp

The Timestamp extension type is a predefined type. Support for this type in the library is done through the TimestampExtension class. This class is responsible for handling Timestamp objects, which represent the number of seconds and optional adjustment in nanoseconds:

$timestampExtension = new TimestampExtension();

$packer = new Packer();
$packer = $packer->extendWith($timestampExtension);

$unpacker = new BufferUnpacker();
$unpacker = $unpacker->extendWith($timestampExtension);

$packedTimestamp = $packer->pack(Timestamp::now());
$timestamp = $unpacker->reset($packedTimestamp)->unpack();

$seconds = $timestamp->getSeconds();
$nanoseconds = $timestamp->getNanoseconds();

When using the MessagePack class, the Timestamp extension is already registered:

$packedTimestamp = MessagePack::pack(Timestamp::now());
$timestamp = MessagePack::unpack($packedTimestamp);

Application-specific extensions

In addition, the format can be extended with your own types. For example, to make the built-in PHP DateTime objects first-class citizens in your code, you can create a corresponding extension, as shown in the example. Please note, that custom extensions have to be registered with a unique extension ID (an integer from 0 to 127).

More extension examples can be found in the examples/MessagePack directory.

To learn more about how extension types can be useful, check out this article.

Exceptions

If an error occurs during packing/unpacking, a PackingFailedException or an UnpackingFailedException will be thrown, respectively. In addition, an InsufficientDataException can be thrown during unpacking.

An InvalidOptionException will be thrown in case an invalid option (or a combination of mutually exclusive options) is used.

Tests

Run tests as follows:

vendor/bin/phpunit

Also, if you already have Docker installed, you can run the tests in a docker container. First, create a container:

./dockerfile.sh | docker build -t msgpack -

The command above will create a container named msgpack with PHP 8.1 runtime. You may change the default runtime by defining the PHP_IMAGE environment variable:

PHP_IMAGE='php:8.0-cli' ./dockerfile.sh | docker build -t msgpack -

See a list of various images here.

Then run the unit tests:

docker run --rm -v $PWD:/msgpack -w /msgpack msgpack

Fuzzing

To ensure that the unpacking works correctly with malformed/semi-malformed data, you can use a testing technique called Fuzzing. The library ships with a help file (target) for PHP-Fuzzer and can be used as follows:

php-fuzzer fuzz tests/fuzz_buffer_unpacker.php

Performance

To check performance, run:

php -n -dzend_extension=opcache.so \
-dpcre.jit=1 -dopcache.enable=1 -dopcache.enable_cli=1 \
tests/bench.php

Example output

Filter: MessagePack\Tests\Perf\Filter\ListFilter
Rounds: 3
Iterations: 100000

=============================================
Test/Target            Packer  BufferUnpacker
---------------------------------------------
nil .................. 0.0030 ........ 0.0139
false ................ 0.0037 ........ 0.0144
true ................. 0.0040 ........ 0.0137
7-bit uint #1 ........ 0.0052 ........ 0.0120
7-bit uint #2 ........ 0.0059 ........ 0.0114
7-bit uint #3 ........ 0.0061 ........ 0.0119
5-bit sint #1 ........ 0.0067 ........ 0.0126
5-bit sint #2 ........ 0.0064 ........ 0.0132
5-bit sint #3 ........ 0.0066 ........ 0.0135
8-bit uint #1 ........ 0.0078 ........ 0.0200
8-bit uint #2 ........ 0.0077 ........ 0.0212
8-bit uint #3 ........ 0.0086 ........ 0.0203
16-bit uint #1 ....... 0.0111 ........ 0.0271
16-bit uint #2 ....... 0.0115 ........ 0.0260
16-bit uint #3 ....... 0.0103 ........ 0.0273
32-bit uint #1 ....... 0.0116 ........ 0.0326
32-bit uint #2 ....... 0.0118 ........ 0.0332
32-bit uint #3 ....... 0.0127 ........ 0.0325
64-bit uint #1 ....... 0.0140 ........ 0.0277
64-bit uint #2 ....... 0.0134 ........ 0.0294
64-bit uint #3 ....... 0.0134 ........ 0.0281
8-bit int #1 ......... 0.0086 ........ 0.0241
8-bit int #2 ......... 0.0089 ........ 0.0225
8-bit int #3 ......... 0.0085 ........ 0.0229
16-bit int #1 ........ 0.0118 ........ 0.0280
16-bit int #2 ........ 0.0121 ........ 0.0270
16-bit int #3 ........ 0.0109 ........ 0.0274
32-bit int #1 ........ 0.0128 ........ 0.0346
32-bit int #2 ........ 0.0118 ........ 0.0339
32-bit int #3 ........ 0.0135 ........ 0.0368
64-bit int #1 ........ 0.0138 ........ 0.0276
64-bit int #2 ........ 0.0132 ........ 0.0286
64-bit int #3 ........ 0.0137 ........ 0.0274
64-bit int #4 ........ 0.0180 ........ 0.0285
64-bit float #1 ...... 0.0134 ........ 0.0284
64-bit float #2 ...... 0.0125 ........ 0.0275
64-bit float #3 ...... 0.0126 ........ 0.0283
fix string #1 ........ 0.0035 ........ 0.0133
fix string #2 ........ 0.0094 ........ 0.0216
fix string #3 ........ 0.0094 ........ 0.0222
fix string #4 ........ 0.0091 ........ 0.0241
8-bit string #1 ...... 0.0122 ........ 0.0301
8-bit string #2 ...... 0.0118 ........ 0.0304
8-bit string #3 ...... 0.0119 ........ 0.0315
16-bit string #1 ..... 0.0150 ........ 0.0388
16-bit string #2 ..... 0.1545 ........ 0.1665
32-bit string ........ 0.1570 ........ 0.1756
wide char string #1 .. 0.0091 ........ 0.0236
wide char string #2 .. 0.0122 ........ 0.0313
8-bit binary #1 ...... 0.0100 ........ 0.0302
8-bit binary #2 ...... 0.0123 ........ 0.0324
8-bit binary #3 ...... 0.0126 ........ 0.0327
16-bit binary ........ 0.0168 ........ 0.0372
32-bit binary ........ 0.1588 ........ 0.1754
fix array #1 ......... 0.0042 ........ 0.0131
fix array #2 ......... 0.0294 ........ 0.0367
fix array #3 ......... 0.0412 ........ 0.0472
16-bit array #1 ...... 0.1378 ........ 0.1596
16-bit array #2 ........... S ............. S
32-bit array .............. S ............. S
complex array ........ 0.1865 ........ 0.2283
fix map #1 ........... 0.0725 ........ 0.1048
fix map #2 ........... 0.0319 ........ 0.0405
fix map #3 ........... 0.0356 ........ 0.0665
fix map #4 ........... 0.0465 ........ 0.0497
16-bit map #1 ........ 0.2540 ........ 0.3028
16-bit map #2 ............. S ............. S
32-bit map ................ S ............. S
complex map .......... 0.2372 ........ 0.2710
fixext 1 ............. 0.0283 ........ 0.0358
fixext 2 ............. 0.0291 ........ 0.0371
fixext 4 ............. 0.0302 ........ 0.0355
fixext 8 ............. 0.0288 ........ 0.0384
fixext 16 ............ 0.0293 ........ 0.0359
8-bit ext ............ 0.0302 ........ 0.0439
16-bit ext ........... 0.0334 ........ 0.0499
32-bit ext ........... 0.1845 ........ 0.1888
32-bit timestamp #1 .. 0.0337 ........ 0.0547
32-bit timestamp #2 .. 0.0335 ........ 0.0560
64-bit timestamp #1 .. 0.0371 ........ 0.0575
64-bit timestamp #2 .. 0.0374 ........ 0.0542
64-bit timestamp #3 .. 0.0356 ........ 0.0533
96-bit timestamp #1 .. 0.0362 ........ 0.0699
96-bit timestamp #2 .. 0.0381 ........ 0.0701
96-bit timestamp #3 .. 0.0367 ........ 0.0687
=============================================
Total                  2.7618          4.0820
Skipped                     4               4
Failed                      0               0
Ignored                     0               0

With JIT:

php -n -dzend_extension=opcache.so \
-dpcre.jit=1 -dopcache.jit_buffer_size=64M -dopcache.jit=tracing -dopcache.enable=1 -dopcache.enable_cli=1 \
tests/bench.php

Example output

Filter: MessagePack\Tests\Perf\Filter\ListFilter
Rounds: 3
Iterations: 100000

=============================================
Test/Target            Packer  BufferUnpacker
---------------------------------------------
nil .................. 0.0005 ........ 0.0054
false ................ 0.0004 ........ 0.0059
true ................. 0.0004 ........ 0.0059
7-bit uint #1 ........ 0.0010 ........ 0.0047
7-bit uint #2 ........ 0.0010 ........ 0.0046
7-bit uint #3 ........ 0.0010 ........ 0.0046
5-bit sint #1 ........ 0.0025 ........ 0.0046
5-bit sint #2 ........ 0.0023 ........ 0.0046
5-bit sint #3 ........ 0.0024 ........ 0.0045
8-bit uint #1 ........ 0.0043 ........ 0.0081
8-bit uint #2 ........ 0.0043 ........ 0.0079
8-bit uint #3 ........ 0.0041 ........ 0.0080
16-bit uint #1 ....... 0.0064 ........ 0.0095
16-bit uint #2 ....... 0.0064 ........ 0.0091
16-bit uint #3 ....... 0.0064 ........ 0.0094
32-bit uint #1 ....... 0.0085 ........ 0.0114
32-bit uint #2 ....... 0.0077 ........ 0.0122
32-bit uint #3 ....... 0.0077 ........ 0.0120
64-bit uint #1 ....... 0.0085 ........ 0.0159
64-bit uint #2 ....... 0.0086 ........ 0.0157
64-bit uint #3 ....... 0.0086 ........ 0.0158
8-bit int #1 ......... 0.0042 ........ 0.0080
8-bit int #2 ......... 0.0042 ........ 0.0080
8-bit int #3 ......... 0.0042 ........ 0.0081
16-bit int #1 ........ 0.0065 ........ 0.0095
16-bit int #2 ........ 0.0065 ........ 0.0090
16-bit int #3 ........ 0.0056 ........ 0.0085
32-bit int #1 ........ 0.0067 ........ 0.0107
32-bit int #2 ........ 0.0066 ........ 0.0106
32-bit int #3 ........ 0.0063 ........ 0.0104
64-bit int #1 ........ 0.0072 ........ 0.0162
64-bit int #2 ........ 0.0073 ........ 0.0174
64-bit int #3 ........ 0.0072 ........ 0.0164
64-bit int #4 ........ 0.0077 ........ 0.0161
64-bit float #1 ...... 0.0053 ........ 0.0135
64-bit float #2 ...... 0.0053 ........ 0.0135
64-bit float #3 ...... 0.0052 ........ 0.0135
fix string #1 ....... -0.0002 ........ 0.0044
fix string #2 ........ 0.0035 ........ 0.0067
fix string #3 ........ 0.0035 ........ 0.0077
fix string #4 ........ 0.0033 ........ 0.0078
8-bit string #1 ...... 0.0059 ........ 0.0110
8-bit string #2 ...... 0.0063 ........ 0.0121
8-bit string #3 ...... 0.0064 ........ 0.0124
16-bit string #1 ..... 0.0099 ........ 0.0146
16-bit string #2 ..... 0.1522 ........ 0.1474
32-bit string ........ 0.1511 ........ 0.1483
wide char string #1 .. 0.0039 ........ 0.0084
wide char string #2 .. 0.0073 ........ 0.0123
8-bit binary #1 ...... 0.0040 ........ 0.0112
8-bit binary #2 ...... 0.0075 ........ 0.0123
8-bit binary #3 ...... 0.0077 ........ 0.0129
16-bit binary ........ 0.0096 ........ 0.0145
32-bit binary ........ 0.1535 ........ 0.1479
fix array #1 ......... 0.0008 ........ 0.0061
fix array #2 ......... 0.0121 ........ 0.0165
fix array #3 ......... 0.0193 ........ 0.0222
16-bit array #1 ...... 0.0607 ........ 0.0479
16-bit array #2 ........... S ............. S
32-bit array .............. S ............. S
complex array ........ 0.0749 ........ 0.0824
fix map #1 ........... 0.0329 ........ 0.0431
fix map #2 ........... 0.0161 ........ 0.0189
fix map #3 ........... 0.0205 ........ 0.0262
fix map #4 ........... 0.0252 ........ 0.0205
16-bit map #1 ........ 0.1016 ........ 0.0927
16-bit map #2 ............. S ............. S
32-bit map ................ S ............. S
complex map .......... 0.1096 ........ 0.1030
fixext 1 ............. 0.0157 ........ 0.0161
fixext 2 ............. 0.0175 ........ 0.0183
fixext 4 ............. 0.0156 ........ 0.0185
fixext 8 ............. 0.0163 ........ 0.0184
fixext 16 ............ 0.0164 ........ 0.0182
8-bit ext ............ 0.0158 ........ 0.0207
16-bit ext ........... 0.0203 ........ 0.0219
32-bit ext ........... 0.1614 ........ 0.1539
32-bit timestamp #1 .. 0.0195 ........ 0.0249
32-bit timestamp #2 .. 0.0188 ........ 0.0260
64-bit timestamp #1 .. 0.0207 ........ 0.0281
64-bit timestamp #2 .. 0.0212 ........ 0.0291
64-bit timestamp #3 .. 0.0207 ........ 0.0295
96-bit timestamp #1 .. 0.0222 ........ 0.0358
96-bit timestamp #2 .. 0.0228 ........ 0.0353
96-bit timestamp #3 .. 0.0210 ........ 0.0319
=============================================
Total                  1.6432          1.9674
Skipped                     4               4
Failed                      0               0
Ignored                     0               0

You may change default benchmark settings by defining the following environment variables:

Name	Default
MP_BENCH_TARGETS	pure_p,pure_u, see a list of available targets
MP_BENCH_ITERATIONS	100_000
MP_BENCH_DURATION	not set
MP_BENCH_ROUNDS	3
MP_BENCH_TESTS	-@slow, see a list of available tests

For example:

export MP_BENCH_TARGETS=pure_p
export MP_BENCH_ITERATIONS=1000000
export MP_BENCH_ROUNDS=5
# a comma separated list of test names
export MP_BENCH_TESTS='complex array, complex map'
# or a group name
# export MP_BENCH_TESTS='-@slow' // @pecl_comp
# or a regexp
# export MP_BENCH_TESTS='/complex (array|map)/'

Another example, benchmarking both the library and the PECL extension:

MP_BENCH_TARGETS=pure_p,pure_u,pecl_p,pecl_u \
php -n -dextension=msgpack.so -dzend_extension=opcache.so \
-dpcre.jit=1 -dopcache.enable=1 -dopcache.enable_cli=1 \
tests/bench.php

Example output

Filter: MessagePack\Tests\Perf\Filter\ListFilter
Rounds: 3
Iterations: 100000

===========================================================================
Test/Target            Packer  BufferUnpacker  msgpack_pack  msgpack_unpack
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
nil .................. 0.0031 ........ 0.0141 ...... 0.0055 ........ 0.0064
false ................ 0.0039 ........ 0.0154 ...... 0.0056 ........ 0.0053
true ................. 0.0038 ........ 0.0139 ...... 0.0056 ........ 0.0044
7-bit uint #1 ........ 0.0061 ........ 0.0110 ...... 0.0059 ........ 0.0046
7-bit uint #2 ........ 0.0065 ........ 0.0119 ...... 0.0042 ........ 0.0029
7-bit uint #3 ........ 0.0054 ........ 0.0117 ...... 0.0045 ........ 0.0025
5-bit sint #1 ........ 0.0047 ........ 0.0103 ...... 0.0038 ........ 0.0022
5-bit sint #2 ........ 0.0048 ........ 0.0117 ...... 0.0038 ........ 0.0022
5-bit sint #3 ........ 0.0046 ........ 0.0102 ...... 0.0038 ........ 0.0023
8-bit uint #1 ........ 0.0063 ........ 0.0174 ...... 0.0039 ........ 0.0031
8-bit uint #2 ........ 0.0063 ........ 0.0167 ...... 0.0040 ........ 0.0029
8-bit uint #3 ........ 0.0063 ........ 0.0168 ...... 0.0039 ........ 0.0030
16-bit uint #1 ....... 0.0092 ........ 0.0222 ...... 0.0049 ........ 0.0030
16-bit uint #2 ....... 0.0096 ........ 0.0227 ...... 0.0042 ........ 0.0046
16-bit uint #3 ....... 0.0123 ........ 0.0274 ...... 0.0059 ........ 0.0051
32-bit uint #1 ....... 0.0136 ........ 0.0331 ...... 0.0060 ........ 0.0048
32-bit uint #2 ....... 0.0130 ........ 0.0336 ...... 0.0070 ........ 0.0048
32-bit uint #3 ....... 0.0127 ........ 0.0329 ...... 0.0051 ........ 0.0048
64-bit uint #1 ....... 0.0126 ........ 0.0268 ...... 0.0055 ........ 0.0049
64-bit uint #2 ....... 0.0135 ........ 0.0281 ...... 0.0052 ........ 0.0046
64-bit uint #3 ....... 0.0131 ........ 0.0274 ...... 0.0069 ........ 0.0044
8-bit int #1 ......... 0.0077 ........ 0.0236 ...... 0.0058 ........ 0.0044
8-bit int #2 ......... 0.0087 ........ 0.0244 ...... 0.0058 ........ 0.0048
8-bit int #3 ......... 0.0084 ........ 0.0241 ...... 0.0055 ........ 0.0049
16-bit int #1 ........ 0.0112 ........ 0.0271 ...... 0.0048 ........ 0.0045
16-bit int #2 ........ 0.0124 ........ 0.0292 ...... 0.0057 ........ 0.0049
16-bit int #3 ........ 0.0118 ........ 0.0270 ...... 0.0058 ........ 0.0050
32-bit int #1 ........ 0.0137 ........ 0.0366 ...... 0.0058 ........ 0.0051
32-bit int #2 ........ 0.0133 ........ 0.0366 ...... 0.0056 ........ 0.0049
32-bit int #3 ........ 0.0129 ........ 0.0350 ...... 0.0052 ........ 0.0048
64-bit int #1 ........ 0.0145 ........ 0.0254 ...... 0.0034 ........ 0.0025
64-bit int #2 ........ 0.0097 ........ 0.0214 ...... 0.0034 ........ 0.0025
64-bit int #3 ........ 0.0096 ........ 0.0287 ...... 0.0059 ........ 0.0050
64-bit int #4 ........ 0.0143 ........ 0.0277 ...... 0.0059 ........ 0.0046
64-bit float #1 ...... 0.0134 ........ 0.0281 ...... 0.0057 ........ 0.0052
64-bit float #2 ...... 0.0141 ........ 0.0281 ...... 0.0057 ........ 0.0050
64-bit float #3 ...... 0.0144 ........ 0.0282 ...... 0.0057 ........ 0.0050
fix string #1 ........ 0.0036 ........ 0.0143 ...... 0.0066 ........ 0.0053
fix string #2 ........ 0.0107 ........ 0.0222 ...... 0.0065 ........ 0.0068
fix string #3 ........ 0.0116 ........ 0.0245 ...... 0.0063 ........ 0.0069
fix string #4 ........ 0.0105 ........ 0.0253 ...... 0.0083 ........ 0.0077
8-bit string #1 ...... 0.0126 ........ 0.0318 ...... 0.0075 ........ 0.0088
8-bit string #2 ...... 0.0121 ........ 0.0295 ...... 0.0076 ........ 0.0086
8-bit string #3 ...... 0.0125 ........ 0.0293 ...... 0.0130 ........ 0.0093
16-bit string #1 ..... 0.0159 ........ 0.0368 ...... 0.0117 ........ 0.0086
16-bit string #2 ..... 0.1547 ........ 0.1686 ...... 0.1516 ........ 0.1373
32-bit string ........ 0.1558 ........ 0.1729 ...... 0.1511 ........ 0.1396
wide char string #1 .. 0.0098 ........ 0.0237 ...... 0.0066 ........ 0.0065
wide char string #2 .. 0.0128 ........ 0.0291 ...... 0.0061 ........ 0.0082
8-bit binary #1 ........... I ............. I ........... F ............. I
8-bit binary #2 ........... I ............. I ........... F ............. I
8-bit binary #3 ........... I ............. I ........... F ............. I
16-bit binary ............. I ............. I ........... F ............. I
32-bit binary ............. I ............. I ........... F ............. I
fix array #1 ......... 0.0040 ........ 0.0129 ...... 0.0120 ........ 0.0058
fix array #2 ......... 0.0279 ........ 0.0390 ...... 0.0143 ........ 0.0165
fix array #3 ......... 0.0415 ........ 0.0463 ...... 0.0162 ........ 0.0187
16-bit array #1 ...... 0.1349 ........ 0.1628 ...... 0.0334 ........ 0.0341
16-bit array #2 ........... S ............. S ........... S ............. S
32-bit array .............. S ............. S ........... S ............. S
complex array ............. I ............. I ........... F ............. F
fix map #1 ................ I ............. I ........... F ............. I
fix map #2 ........... 0.0345 ........ 0.0391 ...... 0.0143 ........ 0.0168
fix map #3 ................ I ............. I ........... F ............. I
fix map #4 ........... 0.0459 ........ 0.0473 ...... 0.0151 ........ 0.0163
16-bit map #1 ........ 0.2518 ........ 0.2962 ...... 0.0400 ........ 0.0490
16-bit map #2 ............. S ............. S ........... S ............. S
32-bit map ................ S ............. S ........... S ............. S
complex map .......... 0.2380 ........ 0.2682 ...... 0.0545 ........ 0.0579
fixext 1 .................. I ............. I ........... F ............. F
fixext 2 .................. I ............. I ........... F ............. F
fixext 4 .................. I ............. I ........... F ............. F
fixext 8 .................. I ............. I ........... F ............. F
fixext 16 ................. I ............. I ........... F ............. F
8-bit ext ................. I ............. I ........... F ............. F
16-bit ext ................ I ............. I ........... F ............. F
32-bit ext ................ I ............. I ........... F ............. F
32-bit timestamp #1 ....... I ............. I ........... F ............. F
32-bit timestamp #2 ....... I ............. I ........... F ............. F
64-bit timestamp #1 ....... I ............. I ........... F ............. F
64-bit timestamp #2 ....... I ............. I ........... F ............. F
64-bit timestamp #3 ....... I ............. I ........... F ............. F
96-bit timestamp #1 ....... I ............. I ........... F ............. F
96-bit timestamp #2 ....... I ............. I ........... F ............. F
96-bit timestamp #3 ....... I ............. I ........... F ............. F
===========================================================================
Total                  1.5625          2.3866        0.7735          0.7243
Skipped                     4               4             4               4
Failed                      0               0            24              17
Ignored                    24              24             0               7

With JIT:

MP_BENCH_TARGETS=pure_p,pure_u,pecl_p,pecl_u \
php -n -dextension=msgpack.so -dzend_extension=opcache.so \
-dpcre.jit=1 -dopcache.jit_buffer_size=64M -dopcache.jit=tracing -dopcache.enable=1 -dopcache.enable_cli=1 \
tests/bench.php

Example output

Filter: MessagePack\Tests\Perf\Filter\ListFilter
Rounds: 3
Iterations: 100000

===========================================================================
Test/Target            Packer  BufferUnpacker  msgpack_pack  msgpack_unpack
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
nil .................. 0.0001 ........ 0.0052 ...... 0.0053 ........ 0.0042
false ................ 0.0007 ........ 0.0060 ...... 0.0057 ........ 0.0043
true ................. 0.0008 ........ 0.0060 ...... 0.0056 ........ 0.0041
7-bit uint #1 ........ 0.0031 ........ 0.0046 ...... 0.0062 ........ 0.0041
7-bit uint #2 ........ 0.0021 ........ 0.0043 ...... 0.0062 ........ 0.0041
7-bit uint #3 ........ 0.0022 ........ 0.0044 ...... 0.0061 ........ 0.0040
5-bit sint #1 ........ 0.0030 ........ 0.0048 ...... 0.0062 ........ 0.0040
5-bit sint #2 ........ 0.0032 ........ 0.0046 ...... 0.0062 ........ 0.0040
5-bit sint #3 ........ 0.0031 ........ 0.0046 ...... 0.0062 ........ 0.0040
8-bit uint #1 ........ 0.0054 ........ 0.0079 ...... 0.0062 ........ 0.0050
8-bit uint #2 ........ 0.0051 ........ 0.0079 ...... 0.0064 ........ 0.0044
8-bit uint #3 ........ 0.0051 ........ 0.0082 ...... 0.0062 ........ 0.0044
16-bit uint #1 ....... 0.0077 ........ 0.0094 ...... 0.0065 ........ 0.0045
16-bit uint #2 ....... 0.0077 ........ 0.0094 ...... 0.0063 ........ 0.0045
16-bit uint #3 ....... 0.0077 ........ 0.0095 ...... 0.0064 ........ 0.0047
32-bit uint #1 ....... 0.0088 ........ 0.0119 ...... 0.0063 ........ 0.0043
32-bit uint #2 ....... 0.0089 ........ 0.0117 ...... 0.0062 ........ 0.0039
32-bit uint #3 ....... 0.0089 ........ 0.0118 ...... 0.0063 ........ 0.0044
64-bit uint #1 ....... 0.0097 ........ 0.0155 ...... 0.0063 ........ 0.0045
64-bit uint #2 ....... 0.0095 ........ 0.0153 ...... 0.0061 ........ 0.0045
64-bit uint #3 ....... 0.0096 ........ 0.0156 ...... 0.0063 ........ 0.0047
8-bit int #1 ......... 0.0053 ........ 0.0083 ...... 0.0062 ........ 0.0044
8-bit int #2 ......... 0.0052 ........ 0.0080 ...... 0.0062 ........ 0.0044
8-bit int #3 ......... 0.0052 ........ 0.0080 ...... 0.0062 ........ 0.0043
16-bit int #1 ........ 0.0089 ........ 0.0097 ...... 0.0069 ........ 0.0046
16-bit int #2 ........ 0.0075 ........ 0.0093 ...... 0.0063 ........ 0.0043
16-bit int #3 ........ 0.0075 ........ 0.0094 ...... 0.0062 ........ 0.0046
32-bit int #1 ........ 0.0086 ........ 0.0122 ...... 0.0063 ........ 0.0044
32-bit int #2 ........ 0.0087 ........ 0.0120 ...... 0.0066 ........ 0.0046
32-bit int #3 ........ 0.0086 ........ 0.0121 ...... 0.0060 ........ 0.0044
64-bit int #1 ........ 0.0096 ........ 0.0149 ...... 0.0060 ........ 0.0045
64-bit int #2 ........ 0.0096 ........ 0.0157 ...... 0.0062 ........ 0.0044
64-bit int #3 ........ 0.0096 ........ 0.0160 ...... 0.0063 ........ 0.0046
64-bit int #4 ........ 0.0097 ........ 0.0157 ...... 0.0061 ........ 0.0044
64-bit float #1 ...... 0.0079 ........ 0.0153 ...... 0.0056 ........ 0.0044
64-bit float #2 ...... 0.0079 ........ 0.0152 ...... 0.0057 ........ 0.0045
64-bit float #3 ...... 0.0079 ........ 0.0155 ...... 0.0057 ........ 0.0044
fix string #1 ........ 0.0010 ........ 0.0045 ...... 0.0071 ........ 0.0044
fix string #2 ........ 0.0048 ........ 0.0075 ...... 0.0070 ........ 0.0060
fix string #3 ........ 0.0048 ........ 0.0086 ...... 0.0068 ........ 0.0060
fix string #4 ........ 0.0050 ........ 0.0088 ...... 0.0070 ........ 0.0059
8-bit string #1 ...... 0.0081 ........ 0.0129 ...... 0.0069 ........ 0.0062
8-bit string #2 ...... 0.0086 ........ 0.0128 ...... 0.0069 ........ 0.0065
8-bit string #3 ...... 0.0086 ........ 0.0126 ...... 0.0115 ........ 0.0065
16-bit string #1 ..... 0.0105 ........ 0.0137 ...... 0.0128 ........ 0.0068
16-bit string #2 ..... 0.1510 ........ 0.1486 ...... 0.1526 ........ 0.1391
32-bit string ........ 0.1517 ........ 0.1475 ...... 0.1504 ........ 0.1370
wide char string #1 .. 0.0044 ........ 0.0085 ...... 0.0067 ........ 0.0057
wide char string #2 .. 0.0081 ........ 0.0125 ...... 0.0069 ........ 0.0063
8-bit binary #1 ........... I ............. I ........... F ............. I
8-bit binary #2 ........... I ............. I ........... F ............. I
8-bit binary #3 ........... I ............. I ........... F ............. I
16-bit binary ............. I ............. I ........... F ............. I
32-bit binary ............. I ............. I ........... F ............. I
fix array #1 ......... 0.0014 ........ 0.0059 ...... 0.0132 ........ 0.0055
fix array #2 ......... 0.0146 ........ 0.0156 ...... 0.0155 ........ 0.0148
fix array #3 ......... 0.0211 ........ 0.0229 ...... 0.0179 ........ 0.0180
16-bit array #1 ...... 0.0673 ........ 0.0498 ...... 0.0343 ........ 0.0388
16-bit array #2 ........... S ............. S ........... S ............. S
32-bit array .............. S ............. S ........... S ............. S
complex array ............. I ............. I ........... F ............. F
fix map #1 ................ I ............. I ........... F ............. I
fix map #2 ........... 0.0148 ........ 0.0180 ...... 0.0156 ........ 0.0179
fix map #3 ................ I ............. I ........... F ............. I
fix map #4 ........... 0.0252 ........ 0.0201 ...... 0.0214 ........ 0.0167
16-bit map #1 ........ 0.1027 ........ 0.0836 ...... 0.0388 ........ 0.0510
16-bit map #2 ............. S ............. S ........... S ............. S
32-bit map ................ S ............. S ........... S ............. S
complex map .......... 0.1104 ........ 0.1010 ...... 0.0556 ........ 0.0602
fixext 1 .................. I ............. I ........... F ............. F
fixext 2 .................. I ............. I ........... F ............. F
fixext 4 .................. I ............. I ........... F ............. F
fixext 8 .................. I ............. I ........... F ............. F
fixext 16 ................. I ............. I ........... F ............. F
8-bit ext ................. I ............. I ........... F ............. F
16-bit ext ................ I ............. I ........... F ............. F
32-bit ext ................ I ............. I ........... F ............. F
32-bit timestamp #1 ....... I ............. I ........... F ............. F
32-bit timestamp #2 ....... I ............. I ........... F ............. F
64-bit timestamp #1 ....... I ............. I ........... F ............. F
64-bit timestamp #2 ....... I ............. I ........... F ............. F
64-bit timestamp #3 ....... I ............. I ........... F ............. F
96-bit timestamp #1 ....... I ............. I ........... F ............. F
96-bit timestamp #2 ....... I ............. I ........... F ............. F
96-bit timestamp #3 ....... I ............. I ........... F ............. F
===========================================================================
Total                  0.9642          1.0909        0.8224          0.7213
Skipped                     4               4             4               4
Failed                      0               0            24              17
Ignored                    24              24             0               7

Note that the msgpack extension (v2.1.2) doesn't support ext, bin and UTF-8 str types.

License

The library is released under the MIT License. See the bundled LICENSE file for details.

Author: rybakit
Source Code: https://github.com/rybakit/msgpack.php
License: MIT License

#php 

top 30 Python Tips and Tricks for Beginners

Welcome to my Blog , In this article, you are going to learn the top 10 python tips and tricks.

1) swap two numbers.

2) Reversing a string in Python.

3) Create a single string from all the elements in list.

4) Chaining Of Comparison Operators.

5) Print The File Path Of Imported Modules.

6) Return Multiple Values From Functions.

7) Find The Most Frequent Value In A List.

8) Check The Memory Usage Of An Object.

…

#python #python hacks tricks #python learning tips #python programming tricks #python tips #python tips and tricks #python tips and tricks advanced #python tips and tricks for beginners #python tips tricks and techniques #python tutorial #tips and tricks in python #tips to learn python #top 30 python tips and tricks for beginners

Substrate Knowledge Map For Hackathon Participants

Substrate Knowledge Map for Hackathon Participants

The Substrate Knowledge Map provides information that you—as a Substrate hackathon participant—need to know to develop a non-trivial application for your hackathon submission.

The map covers 6 main sections:

1. Introduction
2. Basics
3. Preliminaries
4. Runtime Development
5. Polkadot JS API
6. Smart Contracts

Each section contains basic information on each topic, with links to additional documentation for you to dig deeper. Within each section, you'll find a mix of quizzes and labs to test your knowledge as your progress through the map. The goal of the labs and quizzes is to help you consolidate what you've learned and put it to practice with some hands-on activities.

Introduction

One question we often get is why learn the Substrate framework when we can write smart contracts to build decentralized applications?

The short answer is that using the Substrate framework and writing smart contracts are two different approaches.

Smart contract development

Traditional smart contract platforms allow users to publish additional logic on top of some core blockchain logic. Since smart contract logic can be published by anyone, including malicious actors and inexperienced developers, there are a number of intentional safeguards and restrictions built around these public smart contract platforms. For example:

Fees: Smart contract developers must ensure that contract users are charged for the computation and storage they impose on the computers running their contract. With fees, block creators are protected from abuse of the network.

Sandboxed: A contract is not able to modify core blockchain storage or storage items of other contracts directly. Its power is limited to only modifying its own state, and the ability to make outside calls to other contracts or runtime functions.

Reversion: Contracts can be prone to undesirable situations that lead to logical errors when wanting to revert or upgrade them. Developers need to learn additional patterns such as splitting their contract's logic and data to ensure seamless upgrades.

These safeguards and restrictions make running smart contracts slower and more costly. However, it's important to consider the different developer audiences for contract development versus Substrate runtime development.

Building decentralized applications with smart contracts allows your community to extend and develop on top of your runtime logic without worrying about proposals, runtime upgrades, and so on. You can also use smart contracts as a testing ground for future runtime changes, but done in an isolated way that protects your network from any errors the changes might introduce.

In summary, smart contract development:

• Is inherently safer to the network.
• Provides economic incentives and transaction fee mechanisms that can't be directly controlled by the smart contract author.
• Provides computational overhead to support graceful logical failures.
• Has a low barrier to entry for developers and enables a faster pace of community interaction.

Substrate runtime development

Unlike traditional smart contract development, Substrate runtime development offers none of the network protections or safeguards. Instead, as a runtime developer, you have total control over how the blockchain behaves. However, this level of control also means that there is a higher barrier to entry.

Substrate is a framework for building blockchains, which almost makes comparing it to smart contract development like comparing apples and oranges. With the Substrate framework, developers can build smart contracts but that is only a fraction of using Substrate to its full potential.

With Substrate, you have full control over the underlying logic that your network's nodes will run. You also have full access for modifying and controlling each and every storage item across your runtime modules. As you progress through this map, you'll discover concepts and techniques that will help you to unlock the potential of the Substrate framework, giving you the freedom to build the blockchain that best suits the needs of your application.

You'll also discover how you can upgrade the Substrate runtime with a single transaction instead of having to organize a community hard-fork. Upgradeability is one of the primary design features of the Substrate framework.

In summary, runtime development:

• Provides low level access to your entire blockchain.
• Removes the overhead of built-in safety for performance.
• Has a higher barrier of entry for developers.
• Provides flexibility to customize full-stack application logic.

To learn more about using smart contracts within Substrate, refer to the Smart Contract - Overview page as well as the Polkadot Builders Guide.

Navigating the documentation

If you need any community support, please join the following channels based on the area where you need help:

• Substrate Technical channel on Discord or Element.
• ink! Smart Contract channel on Discord or Element
• Frontier EVM Compatibility channel on Discord or Element
• PolkatodJS API channel on Discord

Alternatively, also look for support on Stackoverflow where questions are tagged with "substrate" or on the Parity Subport repo.

Use the following links to explore the sites and resources available on each:

Substrate Developer Hub has the most comprehensive all-round coverage about Substrate, from a "big picture" explanation of architecture to specific technical concepts. The site also provides tutorials to guide you as your learn the Substrate framework and the API reference documentation. You should check this site first if you want to look up information about Substrate runtime development. The site consists of:

Knowledge Base: Explaining the foundational concepts of building blockchain runtimes using Substrate.

Tutorials: Hand-on tutorials for developers to follow. The first SIX tutorials show the fundamentals in Substrate and are recommended for every Substrate learner to go through.

How-to Guides: These resources are like the O'Reilly cookbook series written in a task-oriented way for readers to get the job done. Some examples of the topics overed include:

• Setting up proper weight functions for extrinsic calls.
• Using off-chain workers to fetch HTTP requests.
• Writing tests for your pallets It can also be read from

API docs: Substrate API reference documentation.

Substrate Node Template provides a light weight, minimal Substrate blockchain node that you can set up as a local development environment.

Substrate Front-end template provides a front-end interface built with React using Polkadot-JS API to connect to any Substrate node. Developers are encouraged to start new Substrate projects based on these templates.

If you face any technical difficulties and need support, feel free to join the Substrate Technical matrix channel and ask your questions there.

Additional resources

Polkadot Wiki documents the specific behavior and mechanisms of the Polkadot network. The Polkadot network allows multiple blockchains to connect and pass messages to each other. On the wiki, you can learn about how Polkadot—built using Substrate—is customized to support inter-blockchain message passing.

Polkadot JS API doc: documents how to use the Polkadot-JS API. This JavaScript-based API allows developers to build custom front-ends for their blockchains and applications. Polkadot JS API provides a way to connect to Substrate-based blockchains to query runtime metadata and send transactions.

Quiz #1

👉 Submit your answers to Quiz #1

Basics

Set up your local development environment

Here you will set up your local machine to install the Rust compiler—ensuring that you have both stable and nightly versions installed. Both stable and nightly versions are required because currently a Substrate runtime is compiled to a native binary using the stable Rust compiler, then compiled to a WebAssembly (WASM) binary, which only the nightly Rust compiler can do.

Also refer to:

• Set up Substrate for Unix-based machines
• Set up Substrate for Windows

Lab #1

👉 Complete Lab #1: Run a Substrate node

Interact with a Substrate network using Polkadot-JS apps

Polkadot JS Apps is the canonical front-end to interact with any Substrate-based chain.

You can configure whichever endpoint you want it to connected to, even to your localhost running node. Refer to the following two diagrams.

1. Click on the top left side showing your currently connected network:

1. Scroll to the bottom of the menu, open DEVELOPMENT, and choose either Local Node or Custom to specify your own endpoint.

Quiz #2

👉 Complete Quiz #2

Lab #2

👉 Complete Lab #2: Using Polkadot-JS Apps

Notes: If you are connecting Apps to a custom chain (or your locally-running node), you may need to specify your chain's custom data types in JSON under Settings > Developer.

Polkadot-JS Apps only receives a series of bytes from the blockchain. It is up to the developer to tell it how to decode and interpret these custom data type. To learn more on this, refer to:

• Polkadot JS doc: Type basics
• Polkadot JS doc: Extending types

You will also need to create an account. To do so, follow these steps on account generation. You'll learn that you can also use the Polkadot-JS Browser Plugin (a Metamask-like browser extension to manage your Substrate accounts) and it will automatically be imported into Polkadot-JS Apps.

Notes: When you run a Substrate chain in development mode (with the --dev flag), well-known accounts (Alice, Bob, Charlie, etc.) are always created for you.

Lab #3

👉 Complete Lab #3: Create an Account

Preliminaries

You need to know some Rust programming concepts and have a good understanding on how blockchain technology works in order to make the most of developing with Substrate. The following resources will help you brush up in these areas.

Rust

You will need familiarize yourself with Rust to understand how Substrate is built and how to make the most of its capabilities.

If you are new to Rust, or need a brush up on your Rust knowledge, please refer to The Rust Book. You could still continue learning about Substrate without knowing Rust, but we recommend you come back to this section whenever in doubt about what any of the Rust syntax you're looking at means. Here are the parts of the Rust book we recommend you familiarize yourself with:

• ch 1 - 10: These chapters cover the foundational knowledge of programming in Rust
• ch 13: On iterators and closures
• ch 18 - 19: On advanced traits and advanced types. Learn a bit about macros as well. You will not necessarily be writing your own macros, but you'll be using a lot of Substrate and FRAME's built-in macros to write your blockchain runtime.

How blockchains work

Given that you'll be writing a blockchain runtime, you need to know what a blockchain is, and how it works. The **Web3 Blockchain Fundamental MOOC Youtube video series provides a good basis for understanding key blockchain concepts and how blockchains work.

The lectures we recommend you watch are: lectures 1 - 7 and lecture 10. That's 8 lectures, or about 4 hours of video.

Quiz #3

👉 Complete Quiz #3

Substrate runtime development

High level architecture

To know more about the high level architecture of Substrate, please go through the Knowledge Base articles on Getting Started: Overview and Getting Started: Architecture.

In this document, we assume you will develop a Substrate runtime with FRAME (v2). This is what a Substrate node consists of.

Each node has many components that manage things like the transaction queue, communicating over a P2P network, reaching consensus on the state of the blockchain, and the chain's actual runtime logic (aka the blockchain runtime). Each aspect of the node is interesting in its own right, and the runtime is particularly interesting because it contains the business logic (aka "state transition function") that codifies the chain's functionality. The runtime contains a collection of pallets that are configured to work together.

On the node level, Substrate leverages libp2p for the p2p networking layer and puts the transaction pool, consensus mechanism, and underlying data storage (a key-value database) on the node level. These components all work "under the hood", and in this knowledge map we won't cover them in detail except for mentioning their existence.

Quiz #4

👉 Complete Quiz #4

Runtime development topics

In our Developer Hub, we have a thorough coverage on various subjects you need to know to develop with Substrate. So here we just list out the key topics and reference back to Developer Hub. Please go through the following key concepts and the directed resources to know the fundamentals of runtime development.

Key Concept: Runtime, this is where the blockchain state transition function (the blockchain application-specific logic) is defined. It is about composing multiple pallets (can be understood as Rust modules) together in the runtime and hooking them up together.

Runtime Development: Execution, this article describes how a block is produced, and how transactions are selected and executed to reach the next "stage" in the blockchain.

Runtime Develpment: Pallets, this article describes what the basic structure of a Substrate pallet is consists of.

Runtime Development: FRAME, this article gives a high level overview of the system pallets Substrate already implements to help you quickly develop as a runtime engineer. Have a quick skim so you have a basic idea of the different pallets Substrate is made of.

Lab #4

👉 Complete Lab #4: Adding a Pallet into a Runtime

Runtime Development: Storage, this article describes how data is stored on-chain and how you could access them.

Runtime Development: Events & Errors, this page describe how external parties know what has happened in the blockchain, via the emitted events and errors when executing transactions.

Notes: All of the above concepts we leverage on the #[pallet::*] macro to define them in the code. If you are interested to learn more about what other types of pallet macros exist go to the FRAME macro API documentation and this doc on some frequently used Substrate macros.

Lab #5

👉 Complete Lab #5: Building a Proof-of-Existence dApp

• Writing Tests for Your Pallet: learn to build up a mock runtime and write test cases for your pallet logics.

Lab #6

👉 Complete Lab #6: Building a Substrate Kitties dApp

Quiz #5

👉 Complete Quiz #5

Polkadot JS API

Polkadot JS API is the javascript API for Substrate. By using it you can build a javascript front end or utility and interact with any Substrate-based blockchain.

The Substrate Front-end Template is an example of using Polkadot JS API in a React front-end.

• Runtime Development: Metadata, this article describes the API allowing external parties to query what API is open for the chain. Polkadot JS API makes use of a chain's metadata to know what queries and functions are available from a chain to call.

Lab #7

👉 Complete Lab #7: Using Polkadot-JS API

Quiz #6

👉 Complete Quiz #6: Using Polkadot-JS API

Smart contracts

Learn about the difference between smart contract development vs Substrate runtime development, and when to use each here.

In Substrate, you can program smart contracts using ink!.

• Learn about smart contract development in Substrate
• Learn about Smart contract development using ink!

Quiz #7

👉 Complete Quiz #7: Using ink!

What we do not cover

A lot 😄

On-chain runtime upgrades. We have a tutorial on On-chain (forkless) Runtime Upgrade. This tutorial introduces how to perform and schedule a runtime upgrade as an on-chain transaction.

About transaction weight and fee, and benchmarking your runtime to determine the proper transaction cost.

Off-chain Features

There are certain limits to on-chain logic. For instance, computation cannot be too intensive that it affects the block output time, and computation must be deterministic. This means that computation that relies on external data fetching cannot be done on-chain. In Substrate, developers can run these types of computation off-chain and have the result sent back on-chain via extrinsics.

Tightly- and Loosely-coupled pallets, calling one pallet's functions from another pallet via trait specification.

Blockchain Consensus Mechansim, and a guide on customizing it to proof-of-work here.

Parachains: one key feature of Substrate is the capability of becoming a parachain for relay chains like Polkadot. You can develop your own application-specific logic in your chain and rely on the validator community of the relay chain to secure your network, instead of building another validator community yourself. Learn more with the following resources:

• Cross-chain Message Passing (XCMP), how parachain and relay-chain communicate to each others
• Workshop: Using cumulus to build your parachain

Terms clarification

• Substrate: the blockchain development framework built for writing highly customized, domain-specific blockchains.
• Polkadot: Polkadot is the relay chain blockchain, built with Substrate.
• Kusama: Kusama is Polkadot's canary network, used to launch features before these features are launched on Polkadot. You could view it as a beta-network with real economic value where the state of the blockchain is never reset.
• Web 3.0: is the decentralized internet ecosystem that, instead of apps being centrally stored in a few servers and managed by a sovereign party, it is an open, trustless, and permissionless network when apps are not controlled by a centralized entity.
• Web3 Foundation: A foundation setup to support the development of decentralized web software protocols. Learn more about what they do on thier website.

Others

• Answers to quizzes and labs

---

Author: substrate-developer-hub
Source Code: https://github.com/substrate-developer-hub/hackathon-knowledge-map
License: 

#blockchain #substrate 

Lambda, Map, Filter functions in python

Welcome to my Blog, In this article, we will learn python lambda function, Map function, and filter function.

Lambda function in python: Lambda is a one line anonymous function and lambda takes any number of arguments but can only have one expression and python lambda syntax is

Syntax: x = lambda arguments : expression

Now i will show you some python lambda function examples:

#python #anonymous function python #filter function in python #lambda #lambda python 3 #map python #python filter #python filter lambda #python lambda #python lambda examples #python map

ループを使用して、Rustのデータを反復処理します

このモジュールでは、Rustでハッシュマップ複合データ型を操作する方法について説明します。ハッシュマップのようなコレクション内のデータを反復処理するループ式を実装する方法を学びます。演習として、要求された注文をループし、条件をテストし、さまざまなタイプのデータを処理することによって車を作成するRustプログラムを作成します。

さび遊び場

錆遊び場は錆コンパイラにブラウザインタフェースです。言語をローカルにインストールする前、またはコンパイラが利用できない場合は、Playgroundを使用してRustコードの記述を試すことができます。このコース全体を通して、サンプルコードと演習へのPlaygroundリンクを提供します。現時点でRustツールチェーンを使用できない場合でも、コードを操作できます。

Rust Playgroundで実行されるすべてのコードは、ローカルの開発環境でコンパイルして実行することもできます。コンピューターからRustコンパイラーと対話することを躊躇しないでください。Rust Playgroundの詳細については、What isRust？をご覧ください。モジュール。

学習目標

このモジュールでは、次のことを行います。

• Rustのハッシュマップデータ型、およびキーと値にアクセスする方法を確認してください
• ループ式を使用してRustプログラムのデータを反復処理する方法を探る
• Rustプログラムを作成、コンパイル、実行して、ループを使用してハッシュマップデータを反復処理します

Rustのもう1つの一般的なコレクションの種類は、ハッシュマップです。このHashMap<K, V>型は、各キーKをその値にマッピングすることによってデータを格納しますV。ベクトル内のデータは整数インデックスを使用してアクセスされますが、ハッシュマップ内のデータはキーを使用してアクセスされます。

ハッシュマップタイプは、オブジェクト、ハッシュテーブル、辞書などのデータ項目の多くのプログラミング言語で使用されます。

ベクトルのように、ハッシュマップは拡張可能です。データはヒープに格納され、ハッシュマップアイテムへのアクセスは実行時にチェックされます。

ハッシュマップを定義する

次の例では、書評を追跡するためのハッシュマップを定義しています。ハッシュマップキーは本の名前であり、値は読者のレビューです。

use std::collections::HashMap;
let mut reviews: HashMap<String, String> = HashMap::new();

reviews.insert(String::from("Ancient Roman History"), String::from("Very accurate."));
reviews.insert(String::from("Cooking with Rhubarb"), String::from("Sweet recipes."));
reviews.insert(String::from("Programming in Rust"), String::from("Great examples."));

このコードをさらに詳しく調べてみましょう。最初の行に、新しいタイプの構文が表示されます。

use std::collections::HashMap;

このuseコマンドは、Rust標準ライブラリの一部HashMapからの定義をcollectionsプログラムのスコープに取り込みます。この構文は、他のプログラミング言語がインポートと呼ぶものと似ています。

HashMap::newメソッドを使用して空のハッシュマップを作成します。reviews必要に応じてキーと値を追加または削除できるように、変数を可変として宣言します。この例では、ハッシュマップのキーと値の両方がStringタイプを使用しています。

let mut reviews: HashMap<String, String> = HashMap::new();

キーと値のペアを追加します

このinsert(<key>, <value>)メソッドを使用して、ハッシュマップに要素を追加します。コードでは、構文は<hash_map_name>.insert()次のとおりです。

reviews.insert(String::from("Ancient Roman History"), String::from("Very accurate."));

キー値を取得する

ハッシュマップにデータを追加した後、get(<key>)メソッドを使用してキーの特定の値を取得できます。

// Look for a specific review
let book: &str = "Programming in Rust";
println!("\nReview for \'{}\': {:?}", book, reviews.get(book));

出力は次のとおりです。

Review for 'Programming in Rust': Some("Great examples.")

ノート

出力には、書評が単なる「すばらしい例」ではなく「Some（ "すばらしい例。"）」として表示されていることに注意してください。getメソッドはOption<&Value>型を返すため、Rustはメソッド呼び出しの結果を「Some（）」表記でラップします。

キーと値のペアを削除します

この.remove()メソッドを使用して、ハッシュマップからエントリを削除できます。get無効なハッシュマップキーに対してメソッドを使用すると、getメソッドは「なし」を返します。

// Remove book review
let obsolete: &str = "Ancient Roman History";
println!("\n'{}\' removed.", obsolete);
reviews.remove(obsolete);

// Confirm book review removed
println!("\nReview for \'{}\': {:?}", obsolete, reviews.get(obsolete));

出力は次のとおりです。

'Ancient Roman History' removed.
Review for 'Ancient Roman History': None

このコードを試して、このRustPlaygroundでハッシュマップを操作できます。

演習：ハッシュマップを使用して注文を追跡する
この演習では、ハッシュマップを使用するように自動車工場のプログラムを変更します。

ハッシュマップキーと値のペアを使用して、車の注文に関する詳細を追跡し、出力を表示します。繰り返しになりますが、あなたの課題は、サンプルコードを完成させてコンパイルして実行することです。

この演習のサンプルコードで作業するには、次の2つのオプションがあります。

• コードをコピーして、ローカル開発環境で編集します。
• 準備されたRustPlaygroundでコードを開きます。

ノート

サンプルコードで、todo!マクロを探します。このマクロは、完了するか更新する必要があるコードを示します。

現在のプログラムをロードする

最初のステップは、既存のプログラムコードを取得することです。

1. 編集のために既存のプログラムコードを開きます。コードは、データ型宣言、および定義のため含みcar_quality、car_factoryおよびmain機能を。

次のコードをコピーしてローカル開発環境で編集する
か、この準備されたRustPlaygroundでコードを開きます。

#[derive(PartialEq, Debug)]
struct Car { color: String, motor: Transmission, roof: bool, age: (Age, u32) }

#[derive(PartialEq, Debug)]
enum Transmission { Manual, SemiAuto, Automatic }

#[derive(PartialEq, Debug)]
enum Age { New, Used }

// Get the car quality by testing the value of the input argument
// - miles (u32)
// Return tuple with car age ("New" or "Used") and mileage
fn car_quality (miles: u32) -> (Age, u32) {

    // Check if car has accumulated miles
    // Return tuple early for Used car
    if miles > 0 {
        return (Age::Used, miles);
    }

    // Return tuple for New car, no need for "return" keyword or semicolon
    (Age::New, miles)
}

// Build "Car" using input arguments
fn car_factory(order: i32, miles: u32) -> Car {
    let colors = ["Blue", "Green", "Red", "Silver"];

    // Prevent panic: Check color index for colors array, reset as needed
    // Valid color = 1, 2, 3, or 4
    // If color > 4, reduce color to valid index
    let mut color = order as usize;
    if color > 4 {        
        // color = 5 --> index 1, 6 --> 2, 7 --> 3, 8 --> 4
        color = color - 4;
    }

    // Add variety to orders for motor type and roof type
    let mut motor = Transmission::Manual;
    let mut roof = true;
    if order % 3 == 0 {          // 3, 6, 9
        motor = Transmission::Automatic;
    } else if order % 2 == 0 {   // 2, 4, 8, 10
        motor = Transmission::SemiAuto;
        roof = false;
    }                            // 1, 5, 7, 11

    // Return requested "Car"
    Car {
        color: String::from(colors[(color-1) as usize]),
        motor: motor,
        roof: roof,
        age: car_quality(miles)
    }
}

fn main() {
    // Initialize counter variable
    let mut order = 1;
    // Declare a car as mutable "Car" struct
    let mut car: Car;

    // Order 6 cars, increment "order" for each request
    // Car order #1: Used, Hard top
    car = car_factory(order, 1000);
    println!("{}: {:?}, Hard top = {}, {:?}, {}, {} miles", order, car.age.0, car.roof, car.motor, car.color, car.age.1);

    // Car order #2: Used, Convertible
    order = order + 1;
    car = car_factory(order, 2000);
    println!("{}: {:?}, Hard top = {}, {:?}, {}, {} miles", order, car.age.0, car.roof, car.motor, car.color, car.age.1);    

    // Car order #3: New, Hard top
    order = order + 1;
    car = car_factory(order, 0);
    println!("{}: {:?}, Hard top = {}, {:?}, {}, {} miles", order, car.age.0, car.roof, car.motor, car.color, car.age.1);

    // Car order #4: New, Convertible
    order = order + 1;
    car = car_factory(order, 0);
    println!("{}: {:?}, Hard top = {}, {:?}, {}, {} miles", order, car.age.0, car.roof, car.motor, car.color, car.age.1);

    // Car order #5: Used, Hard top
    order = order + 1;
    car = car_factory(order, 3000);
    println!("{}: {:?}, Hard top = {}, {:?}, {}, {} miles", order, car.age.0, car.roof, car.motor, car.color, car.age.1);

    // Car order #6: Used, Hard top
    order = order + 1;
    car = car_factory(order, 4000);
    println!("{}: {:?}, Hard top = {}, {:?}, {}, {} miles", order, car.age.0, car.roof, car.motor, car.color, car.age.1);
}

2. プログラムをビルドします。次のセクションに進む前に、コードがコンパイルされて実行されることを確認してください。

次の出力が表示されます。

1: Used, Hard top = true, Manual, Blue, 1000 miles
2: Used, Hard top = false, SemiAuto, Green, 2000 miles
3: New, Hard top = true, Automatic, Red, 0 miles
4: New, Hard top = false, SemiAuto, Silver, 0 miles
5: Used, Hard top = true, Manual, Blue, 3000 miles
6: Used, Hard top = true, Automatic, Green, 4000 miles

注文の詳細を追跡するためのハッシュマップを追加する

現在のプログラムは、各車の注文を処理し、各注文が完了した後に要約を印刷します。car_factory関数を呼び出すたびにCar、注文の詳細を含む構造体が返され、注文が実行されます。結果はcar変数に格納されます。

お気づきかもしれませんが、このプログラムにはいくつかの重要な機能がありません。すべての注文を追跡しているわけではありません。car変数は、現在の注文の詳細のみを保持しています。関数carの結果で変数が更新されるたびcar_factoryに、前の順序の詳細が上書きされます。

ファイリングシステムのようにすべての注文を追跡するために、プログラムを更新する必要があります。この目的のために、<K、V>ペアでハッシュマップを定義します。ハッシュマップキーは、車の注文番号に対応します。ハッシュマップ値は、Car構造体で定義されているそれぞれの注文の詳細になります。

1. ハッシュマップを定義するには、main関数の先頭、最初の中括弧の直後に次のコードを追加します{。

// Initialize a hash map for the car orders
    // - Key: Car order number, i32
    // - Value: Car order details, Car struct
    use std::collections::HashMap;
    let mut orders: HashMap<i32, Car> = HashMap;

2. ordersハッシュマップを作成するステートメントの構文の問題を修正します。

ヒント

ハッシュマップを最初から作成しているので、おそらくこのnew()メソッドを使用することをお勧めします。

3. プログラムをビルドします。次のセクションに進む前に、コードがコンパイルされていることを確認してください。コンパイラからの警告メッセージは無視してかまいません。

ハッシュマップに値を追加する

次のステップは、履行された各自動車注文をハッシュマップに追加することです。

このmain関数では、car_factory車の注文ごとに関数を呼び出します。注文が履行された後、println!マクロを呼び出して、car変数に格納されている注文の詳細を表示します。

// Car order #1: Used, Hard top
    car = car_factory(order, 1000);
    println!("{}: {}, Hard top = {}, {:?}, {}, {} miles", order, car.age.0, car.roof, car.motor, car.color, car.age.1);

    ...

    // Car order #6: Used, Hard top
    order = order + 1;
    car = car_factory(order, 4000);
    println!("{}: {}, Hard top = {}, {:?}, {}, {} miles", order, car.age.0, car.roof, car.motor, car.color, car.age.1);

新しいハッシュマップで機能するように、これらのコードステートメントを修正します。

• car_factory関数の呼び出しは保持します。返された各Car構造体は、ハッシュマップの<K、V>ペアの一部として格納されます。
• println!マクロの呼び出しを更新して、ハッシュマップに保存されている注文の詳細を表示します。

1. main関数で、関数の呼び出しcar_factoryとそれに伴うprintln!マクロの呼び出しを見つけます。

// Car order #1: Used, Hard top
    car = car_factory(order, 1000);
    println!("{}: {}, Hard top = {}, {:?}, {}, {} miles", order, car.age.0, car.roof, car.motor, car.color, car.age.1);

    ...

    // Car order #6: Used, Hard top
    order = order + 1;
    car = car_factory(order, 4000);
    println!("{}: {}, Hard top = {}, {:?}, {}, {} miles", order, car.age.0, car.roof, car.motor, car.color, car.age.1);

2. すべての自動車注文のステートメントの完全なセットを次の改訂されたコードに置き換えます。

// Car order #1: Used, Hard top
    car = car_factory(order, 1000);
    orders(order, car);
    println!("Car order {}: {:?}", order, orders.get(&order));

    // Car order #2: Used, Convertible
    order = order + 1;
    car = car_factory(order, 2000);
    orders(order, car);
    println!("Car order {}: {:?}", order, orders.get(&order));

    // Car order #3: New, Hard top
    order = order + 1;
    car = car_factory(order, 0);
    orders(order, car);
    println!("Car order {}: {:?}", order, orders.get(&order));

    // Car order #4: New, Convertible
    order = order + 1;
    car = car_factory(order, 0);
    orders(order, car);
    println!("Car order {}: {:?}", order, orders.get(&order));

    // Car order #5: Used, Hard top
    order = order + 1;
    car = car_factory(order, 3000);
    orders(order, car);
    println!("Car order {}: {:?}", order, orders.get(&order));

    // Car order #6: Used, Hard top
    order = order + 1;
    car = car_factory(order, 4000);
    orders(order, car);
    println!("Car order {}: {:?}", order, orders.get(&order));

3. 今すぐプログラムをビルドしようとすると、コンパイルエラーが表示されます。<K、V>ペアをordersハッシュマップに追加するステートメントに構文上の問題があります。問題がありますか？先に進んで、ハッシュマップに順序を追加する各ステートメントの問題を修正してください。

ヒント

ordersハッシュマップに直接値を割り当てることはできません。挿入を行うにはメソッドを使用する必要があります。

プログラムを実行する

プログラムが正常にビルドされると、次の出力が表示されます。

Car order 1: Some(Car { color: "Blue", motor: Manual, roof: true, age: ("Used", 1000) })
Car order 2: Some(Car { color: "Green", motor: SemiAuto, roof: false, age: ("Used", 2000) })
Car order 3: Some(Car { color: "Red", motor: Automatic, roof: true, age: ("New", 0) })
Car order 4: Some(Car { color: "Silver", motor: SemiAuto, roof: false, age: ("New", 0) })
Car order 5: Some(Car { color: "Blue", motor: Manual, roof: true, age: ("Used", 3000) })
Car order 6: Some(Car { color: "Green", motor: Automatic, roof: true, age: ("Used", 4000) })

改訂されたコードの出力が異なることに注意してください。println!マクロディスプレイの内容Car各値を示すことによって、構造体と対応するフィールド名。

次の演習では、ループ式を使用してコードの冗長性を減らします。

for、while、およびloop式を使用します

多くの場合、プログラムには、その場で繰り返す必要のあるコードのブロックがあります。ループ式を使用して、繰り返しの実行方法をプログラムに指示できます。電話帳のすべてのエントリを印刷するには、ループ式を使用して、最初のエントリから最後のエントリまで印刷する方法をプログラムに指示できます。

Rustは、プログラムにコードのブロックを繰り返させるための3つのループ式を提供します。

• loop：手動停止が発生しない限り、繰り返します。
• while：条件が真のままで繰り返します。
• for：コレクション内のすべての値に対して繰り返します。

この単元では、これらの各ループ式を見ていきます。

ループし続けるだけ

loop式は、無限ループを作成します。このキーワードを使用すると、式の本文でアクションを継続的に繰り返すことができます。ループを停止させるための直接アクションを実行するまで、アクションが繰り返されます。

次の例では、「We loopforever！」というテキストを出力します。そしてそれはそれ自体で止まりません。println!アクションは繰り返し続けます。

loop {
    println!("We loop forever!");
}

loop式を使用する場合、ループを停止する唯一の方法は、プログラマーとして直接介入する場合です。特定のコードを追加してループを停止したり、Ctrl + Cなどのキーボード命令を入力してプログラムの実行を停止したりできます。

loop式を停止する最も一般的な方法は、breakキーワードを使用してブレークポイントを設定することです。

loop {
    // Keep printing, printing, printing...
    println!("We loop forever!");
    // On the other hand, maybe we should stop!
    break;                            
}

プログラムがbreakキーワードを検出すると、loop式の本体でアクションの実行を停止し、次のコードステートメントに進みます。

breakキーワードは、特別な機能を明らかにするloop表現を。breakキーワードを使用すると、式本体でのアクションの繰り返しを停止することも、ブレークポイントで値を返すこともできます。

次の例はbreak、loop式でキーワードを使用して値も返す方法を示しています。

let mut counter = 1;
// stop_loop is set when loop stops
let stop_loop = loop {
    counter *= 2;
    if counter > 100 {
        // Stop loop, return counter value
        break counter;
    }
};
// Loop should break when counter = 128
println!("Break the loop at counter = {}.", stop_loop);

出力は次のとおりです。

Break the loop at counter = 128.

私たちのloop表現の本体は、これらの連続したアクションを実行します。

1. stop_loop変数を宣言します。
2. 変数値をloop式の結果にバインドするようにプログラムに指示します。
3. ループを開始します。loop式の本体でアクションを実行します：
   ループ本体
   1. counter値を現在の値の2倍にインクリメントします。
   2. counter値を確認してください。
   3. もしcounter値が100以上です。

ループから抜け出し、counter値を返します。

4. もしcounter値が100以上ではありません。

ループ本体でアクションを繰り返します。

5. stop_loop値を式のcounter結果である値に設定しますloop。

loop式本体は、複数のブレークポイントを持つことができます。式に複数のブレークポイントがある場合、すべてのブレークポイントは同じタイプの値を返す必要があります。すべての値は、整数型、文字列型、ブール型などである必要があります。ブレークポイントが明示的に値を返さない場合、プログラムは式の結果を空のタプルとして解釈します()。

しばらくループする

whileループは、条件式を使用しています。条件式が真である限り、ループが繰り返されます。このキーワードを使用すると、条件式がfalseになるまで、式本体のアクションを実行できます。

whileループは、ブール条件式を評価することから始まります。条件式がと評価されるtrueと、本体のアクションが実行されます。アクションが完了すると、制御は条件式に戻ります。条件式がと評価されるfalseと、while式は停止します。

次の例では、「しばらくループします...」というテキストを出力します。ループを繰り返すたびに、「カウントが5未満である」という条件がテストされます。条件が真のままである間、式本体のアクションが実行されます。条件が真でなくなった後、whileループは停止し、プログラムは次のコードステートメントに進みます。

while counter < 5 {
    println!("We loop a while...");
    counter = counter + 1;
}

これらの値のループ

forループは、項目のコレクションを処理するためにイテレータを使用しています。ループは、コレクション内の各アイテムの式本体のアクションを繰り返します。このタイプのループの繰り返しは、反復と呼ばれます。すべての反復が完了すると、ループは停止します。

Rustでは、配列、ベクトル、ハッシュマップなど、任意のコレクションタイプを反復処理できます。Rustはイテレータを使用して、コレクション内の各アイテムを最初から最後まで移動します。

forループはイテレータとして一時変数を使用しています。変数はループ式の開始時に暗黙的に宣言され、現在の値は反復ごとに設定されます。

次のコードでは、コレクションはbig_birds配列であり、イテレーターの名前はbirdです。

let big_birds = ["ostrich", "peacock", "stork"];
for bird in big_birds

iter()メソッドを使用して、コレクション内のアイテムにアクセスします。for式は結果にイテレータの現在の値をバインドするiter()方法。式本体では、イテレータ値を操作できます。

let big_birds = ["ostrich", "peacock", "stork"];
for bird in big_birds.iter() {
    println!("The {} is a big bird.", bird);
}

出力は次のとおりです。

The ostrich is a big bird.
The peacock is a big bird.
The stork is a big bird.

イテレータを作成するもう1つの簡単な方法は、範囲表記を使用することですa..b。イテレータはa値から始まりb、1ステップずつ続きますが、値を使用しませんb。

for number in 0..5 {
    println!("{}", number * 2);
}

このコードは、0、1、2、3、および4の数値をnumber繰り返し処理します。ループの繰り返しごとに、値を変数にバインドします。

出力は次のとおりです。

0
2
4
6
8

このコードを実行して、このRustPlaygroundでループを探索できます。

演習：ループを使用してデータを反復処理する

この演習では、自動車工場のプログラムを変更して、ループを使用して自動車の注文を反復処理します。

main関数を更新して、注文の完全なセットを処理するためのループ式を追加します。ループ構造は、コードの冗長性を減らすのに役立ちます。コードを簡素化することで、注文量を簡単に増やすことができます。

このcar_factory関数では、範囲外の値での実行時のパニックを回避するために、別のループを追加します。

課題は、サンプルコードを完成させて、コンパイルして実行することです。

この演習のサンプルコードで作業するには、次の2つのオプションがあります。

• コードをコピーして、ローカル開発環境で編集します。
• 準備されたRustPlaygroundでコードを開きます。

ノート

サンプルコードで、todo!マクロを探します。このマクロは、完了するか更新する必要があるコードを示します。

プログラムをロードする

前回の演習でプログラムコードを閉じた場合は、この準備されたRustPlaygroundでコードを再度開くことができます。

必ずプログラムを再構築し、コンパイラエラーなしで実行されることを確認してください。

ループ式でアクションを繰り返す

より多くの注文をサポートするには、プログラムを更新する必要があります。現在のコード構造では、冗長ステートメントを使用して6つの注文をサポートしています。冗長性は扱いにくく、維持するのが困難です。

ループ式を使用してアクションを繰り返し、各注文を作成することで、構造を単純化できます。簡略化されたコードを使用すると、多数の注文をすばやく作成できます。

1. ではmain機能、削除次の文を。このコードブロックは、order変数を定義および設定し、自動車の注文のcar_factory関数とprintln!マクロを呼び出し、各注文をordersハッシュマップに挿入します。

// Order 6 cars
    // - Increment "order" after each request
    // - Add each order <K, V> pair to "orders" hash map
    // - Call println! to show order details from the hash map

    // Initialize order variable
    let mut order = 1;

    // Car order #1: Used, Hard top
    car = car_factory(order, 1000);
    orders.insert(order, car);
    println!("Car order {}: {:?}", order, orders.get(&order));

    ...

    // Car order #6: Used, Hard top
    order = order + 1;
    car = car_factory(order, 4000);
    orders.insert(order, car);
    println!("Car order {}: {:?}", order, orders.get(&order));

2. 削除されたステートメントを次のコードブロックに置き換えます。

// Start with zero miles
    let mut miles = 0;

    todo!("Add a loop expression to fulfill orders for 6 cars, initialize `order` variable to 1") {

        // Call car_factory to fulfill order
        // Add order <K, V> pair to "orders" hash map
        // Call println! to show order details from the hash map        
        car = car_factory(order, miles);
        orders.insert(order, car);
        println!("Car order {}: {:?}", order, orders.get(&order));

        // Reset miles for order variety
        if miles == 2100 {
            miles = 0;
        } else {
            miles = miles + 700;
        }
    }

3. アクションを繰り返すループ式を追加して、6台の車の注文を作成します。order1に初期化された変数が必要です。

4. プログラムをビルドします。コードがエラーなしでコンパイルされることを確認してください。

次の例のような出力が表示されます。

Car order 1: Some(Car { color: "Blue", motor: Manual, roof: true, age: ("New", 0) })
Car order 2: Some(Car { color: "Green", motor: SemiAuto, roof: false, age: ("Used", 700) })
Car order 3: Some(Car { color: "Red", motor: Automatic, roof: true, age: ("Used", 1400) })
Car order 4: Some(Car { color: "Silver", motor: SemiAuto, roof: false, age: ("Used", 2100) })
Car order 5: Some(Car { color: "Blue", motor: Manual, roof: true, age: ("New", 0) })
Car order 6: Some(Car { color: "Green", motor: Automatic, roof: true, age: ("Used", 700) })

車の注文を11に増やす

 プログラムは現在、ループを使用して6台の車の注文を処理しています。6台以上注文するとどうなりますか？

1. main関数のループ式を更新して、11台の車を注文します。

    todo!("Update the loop expression to create 11 cars");

2. プログラムを再構築します。実行時に、プログラムはパニックになります！

Compiling playground v0.0.1 (/playground)
    Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 1.26s
    Running `target/debug/playground`
thread 'main' panicked at 'index out of bounds: the len is 4 but the index is 4', src/main.rs:34:29

この問題を解決する方法を見てみましょう。

ループ式で実行時のパニックを防ぐ

このcar_factory関数では、if / else式を使用colorして、colors配列のインデックスの値を確認します。

// Prevent panic: Check color index for colors array, reset as needed
    // Valid color = 1, 2, 3, or 4
    // If color > 4, reduce color to valid index
    let mut color = order as usize;
    if color > 4 {        
        // color = 5 --> index 1, 6 --> 2, 7 --> 3, 8 --> 4
        color = color - 4;
    }

colors配列には4つの要素を持ち、かつ有効なcolor場合は、インデックスの範囲は0〜3の条件式をチェックしているcolor私たちはをチェックしません（インデックスが4よりも大きい場合color、その後の関数で4に等しいインデックスへのときに我々のインデックスを車の色を割り当てる配列では、インデックス値から1を減算しますcolor - 1。color値4はcolors[3]、配列と同様に処理されます。）

現在のif / else式は、8台以下の車を注文するときの実行時のパニックを防ぐためにうまく機能します。しかし、11台の車を注文すると、プログラムは9番目の注文でパニックになります。より堅牢になるように式を調整する必要があります。この改善を行うために、別のループ式を使用します。

1. ではcar_factory機能、ループ式であれば/他の条件文を交換してください。colorインデックス値が4より大きい場合に実行時のパニックを防ぐために、次の擬似コードステートメントを修正してください。

// Prevent panic: Check color index, reset as needed
    // If color = 1, 2, 3, or 4 - no change needed
    // If color > 4, reduce to color to a valid index
    let mut color = order as usize;
    todo!("Replace `if/else` condition with a loop to prevent run-time panic for color > 4");

ヒント

この場合、if / else条件からループ式への変更は実際には非常に簡単です。

2. プログラムをビルドします。コードがエラーなしでコンパイルされることを確認してください。

次の出力が表示されます。

Car order 1: Some(Car { color: "Blue", motor: Manual, roof: true, age: ("New", 0) })
Car order 2: Some(Car { color: "Green", motor: SemiAuto, roof: false, age: ("Used", 700) })
Car order 3: Some(Car { color: "Red", motor: Automatic, roof: true, age: ("Used", 1400) })
Car order 4: Some(Car { color: "Silver", motor: SemiAuto, roof: false, age: ("Used", 2100) })
Car order 5: Some(Car { color: "Blue", motor: Manual, roof: true, age: ("New", 0) })
Car order 6: Some(Car { color: "Green", motor: Automatic, roof: true, age: ("Used", 700) })
Car order 7: Some(Car { color: "Red", motor: Manual, roof: true, age: ("Used", 1400) })
Car order 8: Some(Car { color: "Silver", motor: SemiAuto, roof: false, age: ("Used", 2100) })
Car order 9: Some(Car { color: "Blue", motor: Automatic, roof: true, age: ("New", 0) })
Car order 10: Some(Car { color: "Green", motor: SemiAuto, roof: false, age: ("Used", 700) })
Car order 11: Some(Car { color: "Red", motor: Manual, roof: true, age: ("Used", 1400) })

概要

このモジュールでは、Rustで使用できるさまざまなループ式を調べ、ハッシュマップの操作方法を発見しました。データは、キーと値のペアとしてハッシュマップに保存されます。ハッシュマップは拡張可能です。

loop手動でプロセスを停止するまでの式は、アクションを繰り返します。while式をループして、条件が真である限りアクションを繰り返すことができます。このfor式は、データ収集を反復処理するために使用されます。

この演習では、自動車プログラムを拡張して、繰り返されるアクションをループし、すべての注文を処理しました。注文を追跡するためにハッシュマップを実装しました。

このラーニングパスの次のモジュールでは、Rustコードでエラーと障害がどのように処理されるかについて詳しく説明します。

 リンク: https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/learn/modules/rust-loop-expressions/

#rust #Beginners